PART III OF V — A NATION GOES TO WAR

American Soldiers, the Home Front, and the Struggle for Victory

1917–1918

Politics 1776

AMERICA ANSWERS THE CALL

On April 6, 1917, the United States entered the First World War.

For nearly three years, Americans had watched the conflict unfold across Europe.

They had followed reports of enormous battles, devastated cities, submarine attacks, and millions of casualties.

President Woodrow Wilson had attempted to preserve neutrality.

Congress had debated the nation's responsibilities.

And Americans had disagreed over whether their country should become involved.

But Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare, the Zimmermann Telegram, and the growing threat to American maritime rights had brought the country to a turning point.

Congress had declared war.

The decision was made.

Now came the enormous task of carrying it out.

The United States possessed a powerful industrial economy.

Its factories produced steel, machinery, railroad equipment, agricultural products, and manufactured goods.

Its financial institutions had become increasingly important to international commerce.

Its railroads connected distant regions of the country.

But the United States did not possess an army comparable in size to the enormous military forces fighting in Europe.

Millions of soldiers had already been mobilized by the European powers.

The United States would need to recruit and train troops, manufacture weapons, expand transportation systems, organize supplies, and move an army across the Atlantic Ocean.

It would also need to finance the effort.

Factories would have to adjust production.

Farmers would face growing demand.

Families would be separated.

Communities would organize to support the war.

And the federal government would assume responsibilities on a scale rarely experienced in American history.

The United States had entered the war as a nation. Winning it would require the participation of millions of Americans, both in uniform and at home.

BUILDING AN AMERICAN ARMY

A Military Unprepared for the Scale of the Conflict

When Congress declared war, the regular United States Army numbered approximately 127,000 officers and enlisted personnel.

The National Guard provided additional manpower, but the combined forces were still small compared with the armies fighting in Europe.

The United States had military experience.

American forces had fought in the Spanish-American War.

The Army had conducted operations in the Philippines.

American troops had also participated in military actions along the Mexican border.

But the First World War presented an entirely different challenge.

European armies were fighting with heavy artillery, machine guns, poison gas, aircraft, and elaborate trench systems.

Military operations required enormous quantities of ammunition, food, medical supplies, vehicles, and replacement equipment.

The American military would have to expand rapidly.

Training facilities would need to be established.

Officers would need to prepare new soldiers for unfamiliar battlefield conditions.

Transportation systems would need to carry troops from communities across the United States to training camps and Atlantic ports.

The country was beginning one of the largest military mobilizations in its history.

THE SELECTIVE SERVICE ACT OF 1917

Congress Establishes the Draft

On May 18, 1917, President Wilson signed the Selective Service Act.

The law established a system for registering and selecting men for military service.

The initial registration requirements applied to men between the ages of twenty-one and thirty.

Congress later expanded the age range.

Local draft boards became responsible for administering the system.

Millions of American men registered.

By the end of the war, approximately 2.8 million men had entered military service through the draft.

Others volunteered.

The system allowed the government to build an army far larger than the peacetime force.

But compulsory military service also generated debate.

Some Americans regarded the draft as a necessary response to a national emergency.

Others questioned the government's authority to compel military service.

Religious objectors and individuals opposed to war faced difficult circumstances.

The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the draft in 1918.

The decision reflected the broad authority recognized in Congress to raise and support armies.

The debate also demonstrated the tension that can arise between individual liberty and the demands of national defense.

The government was exercising constitutional powers.

But those powers carried consequences for ordinary citizens.

TRAINING THE SOLDIERS

From Civilian Life to Military Service

Across the country, new military training camps began receiving recruits.

Young men arrived from farms, factories, offices, small towns, and major cities.

Many had never traveled far from home.

Some had never left their home states.

They were issued uniforms and equipment.

They learned military discipline.

They practiced marching, weapons handling, physical conditioning, and field operations.

Officers attempted to prepare them for the realities of modern warfare.

The training was demanding.

The military had to turn large numbers of civilians into organized units within a relatively short period.

Not every camp possessed adequate facilities.

Equipment shortages created difficulties.

Medical care and sanitation became important concerns.

Infectious diseases spread through some crowded camps.

The influenza pandemic of 1918 would later produce devastating consequences for military installations.

But the mobilization continued.

By 1918, the United States was developing the manpower needed to make a major contribution to the war.

GENERAL JOHN J. PERSHING

Leading the American Expeditionary Forces

President Wilson selected General John J. Pershing to command the American Expeditionary Forces.

Pershing was an experienced Army officer.

He had served in the American West, the Spanish-American War, the Philippines, and the military expedition into Mexico.

His responsibility was enormous.

He had to organize American forces for overseas combat while coordinating with Allied commanders.

British and French leaders urgently needed additional manpower.

Their armies had suffered years of casualties.

Some Allied officials favored placing American soldiers directly into existing British and French units.

Pershing generally opposed permanently dispersing the American Army in that manner.

He believed the United States should develop a distinct fighting force under American command.

There were practical reasons for cooperation and temporary attachments.

American units sometimes trained or operated alongside Allied forces.

But Pershing continued working toward an independent American field army.

The decision reflected both military considerations and the United States' desire to maintain its own role in the conflict.

AMERICAN SOLDIERS ARRIVE IN FRANCE

June 1917

The first major contingents of American troops began arriving in France in June 1917.

Their arrival was an important symbolic moment.

After nearly three years of war, Allied populations saw American soldiers entering the conflict.

But the initial American presence was relatively small.

The United States could not immediately send millions of trained soldiers into battle.

Transport ships were needed.

Equipment had to be organized.

Ports and supply facilities required expansion.

American troops needed additional training in the conditions of the Western Front.

The United States and its allies also faced the threat of German submarines.

The Atlantic crossing was an essential part of the war effort.

Protecting troop transports became a major naval responsibility.

As the months passed, increasing numbers of Americans arrived in Europe.

The scale of the operation continued growing.

THE NAVY AND THE ATLANTIC

Protecting the Routes to Europe

American participation depended on maintaining shipping routes across the Atlantic.

German submarines threatened merchant vessels carrying food, fuel, ammunition, and other supplies.

They also posed a danger to troop transports.

The United States Navy expanded its cooperation with Allied naval forces.

American destroyers operated from European ports.

Naval vessels escorted shipping and participated in antisubmarine operations.

The convoy system became an important method of protecting merchant ships.

Rather than allowing vessels to travel independently, groups of ships sailed together under naval escort.

Convoys did not eliminate submarine attacks.

But they helped reduce the vulnerability of shipping.

The Navy also contributed to mine warfare and other operations.

American naval personnel served far from home.

Their work was essential to the movement of troops and supplies.

Without secure transportation across the Atlantic, the American Army could not become a major force in Europe.

AMERICAN INDUSTRY GOES TO WAR

Factories Become Part of the National Effort

The American economy had already experienced increased demand from European countries during the years of neutrality.

Now the United States had to supply its own military forces as well.

Factories expanded production of uniforms, ammunition, weapons, vehicles, and equipment.

Steel mills provided materials for military construction and manufacturing.

Railroads transported raw materials and finished goods.

Shipyards increased activity.

Businesses worked to meet government contracts.

But the transition was complicated.

Industrial production had to be coordinated.

Some materials were in short supply.

Transportation networks became congested.

Factories competed for labor.

The government needed to determine which products were most urgently required.

The war encouraged new forms of cooperation between federal officials and private industry.

It also raised questions about the proper role of government in directing economic activity during an emergency.

THE WAR INDUSTRIES BOARD

Coordinating Industrial Production

The federal government established the War Industries Board in 1917.

Its responsibilities expanded significantly in 1918 under the leadership of Bernard Baruch.

The board helped coordinate industrial priorities, materials, and production.

Government officials worked with business leaders to address wartime needs.

The objective was to ensure that military production received essential resources.

The board did not place the entire American economy under direct federal ownership.

Private businesses continued operating.

But the federal government exercised greater influence over production priorities and resource allocation.

This represented an important development.

The United States had traditionally relied heavily on private enterprise.

During the war, the government used emergency authority to coordinate parts of the industrial economy.

Supporters viewed these measures as necessary for military success.

Critics and later observers raised questions about efficiency, favoritism, and the relationship between business and government.

The experience would influence future debates about federal economic responsibilities.

RAILROADS UNDER FEDERAL CONTROL

Keeping the Country Moving

Railroads were essential to the American war effort.

They transported soldiers to training camps.

They carried food, coal, steel, ammunition, and equipment.

They connected factories with ports.

But wartime demand placed enormous pressure on the system.

Congestion and coordination problems threatened transportation efficiency.

In December 1917, the federal government assumed control of the nation's railroads through the United States Railroad Administration.

William Gibbs McAdoo, Wilson's secretary of the Treasury, became director general.

The government coordinated operations to improve the movement of essential freight and passengers.

Private ownership of the railroad companies generally remained in place.

But federal authorities temporarily directed their operation.

The measure demonstrated how the demands of war could change the relationship between government and major industries.

Federal control would continue after the armistice before the railroads returned to private operation in 1920.

FEEDING THE ARMY AND THE ALLIES

American Agriculture Becomes Essential

The war required enormous quantities of food.

American soldiers needed supplies.

Allied armies depended on imports.

Civilian populations in Europe faced shortages.

American farmers were encouraged to increase production.

The federal government established the United States Food Administration in 1917.

Herbert Hoover became its administrator.

Hoover had already gained international recognition for organizing relief efforts in Europe.

The Food Administration encouraged conservation and more efficient use of supplies.

Americans were urged to reduce consumption of certain foods so more could be available for military and Allied needs.

Campaigns promoted meatless and wheatless days.

Families planted gardens.

Community organizations supported conservation efforts.

Much of the program relied on voluntary cooperation.

The government also exercised regulatory authority in areas connected to food distribution and wartime supply.

The effort demonstrated the importance of agriculture to national security.

Farmers, merchants, transportation workers, and households all became participants in the wartime economy.

PAYING FOR THE WAR

Taxes, Bonds, and Public Debt

Modern warfare was extraordinarily expensive.

The government needed to pay for military equipment, training, transportation, food, medical care, and overseas operations.

Congress approved new revenue measures.

Taxes increased.

The federal government also borrowed extensively.

Liberty Loan campaigns encouraged Americans to purchase government bonds.

The bonds allowed citizens to lend money to the federal government in exchange for repayment with interest.

Public campaigns promoted bond purchases as a contribution to the national war effort.

Posters appeared in public places.

Speakers addressed communities.

Schools and civic organizations participated.

Millions of Americans purchased bonds.

The financing effort connected ordinary households to federal wartime spending.

But borrowing also increased the national debt.

The experience would influence later debates over taxation, government finance, and the economic consequences of war.

WOMEN AND THE WAR EFFORT

A Changing Workforce

Women had always contributed to the American economy.

They worked on farms, in factories, in offices, in shops, in schools, and in homes.

Many women supported families through paid employment.

Others performed unpaid labor essential to household and community life.

The war created additional demands for workers.

As men entered military service, employers sought labor for certain occupations.

Women took positions in manufacturing, transportation, clerical work, and other industries.

Some entered jobs that had previously employed relatively few women.

Women also served in military-related roles.

Nurses cared for wounded and sick service members.

Women worked as telephone operators, clerks, and support personnel.

The Navy enlisted women in certain noncombat roles.

The Marine Corps also recruited women for administrative duties.

Their contributions helped sustain the war effort.

But opportunities remained unequal.

Women often received lower wages than men.

Many faced restrictions on employment and advancement.

Some wartime positions disappeared after the conflict.

Nevertheless, the war increased public attention to women's economic and civic contributions.

WOMEN AND THE RIGHT TO VOTE

A Movement Already Decades Old

The movement for women's suffrage had begun long before World War I.

Advocates had organized conventions, petitions, campaigns, and demonstrations for generations.

By 1917, women possessed voting rights in several states.

But the Constitution did not yet prohibit voting discrimination on account of sex.

The war became part of the national debate.

Some suffrage leaders emphasized women's contributions to the military and civilian war effort.

They argued that citizens who accepted national responsibilities should possess political rights.

Other advocates continued demonstrations and direct pressure on the federal government.

The National Woman's Party organized picketing outside the White House.

Some protesters were arrested.

Their treatment generated public controversy.

The National American Woman Suffrage Association pursued a different strategy, emphasizing organized political support and wartime service.

The movement included different organizations and approaches.

The war did not create the demand for suffrage.

But it became an important part of the political environment in which the Nineteenth Amendment would eventually be adopted.

BLACK AMERICANS ANSWER THE CALL

Military Service in a Segregated Nation

Black Americans served in the armed forces during World War I.

More than 350,000 Black men served in the U.S. Army during the conflict.

The military remained segregated.

Black soldiers frequently faced discrimination in assignments, training, accommodations, and opportunities.

Many were assigned to labor and support units.

They performed essential work involving transportation, construction, supply, and logistics.

Other units participated in combat.

The 92nd and 93rd Divisions included Black soldiers.

Units of the 93rd Division served under French command during important portions of the war.

The 369th Infantry Regiment, later known as the Harlem Hellfighters, became particularly well known.

Its soldiers fought with distinction and earned recognition for their service.

But military participation did not eliminate racial discrimination.

Black soldiers returned to a country in which segregation, disenfranchisement, and racial violence remained widespread.

Their wartime service would become an important part of the continuing struggle for equal citizenship.

THE GREAT MIGRATION

A Changing American Population

The war also accelerated a major demographic movement already underway.

Large numbers of Black Americans left the rural South and moved to northern and midwestern cities.

This movement became known as the Great Migration.

Industrial employers needed workers.

Wartime immigration restrictions and disruptions reduced some sources of labor.

Factories in cities such as Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, and Pittsburgh offered employment opportunities.

Many Black families also sought to escape the discrimination, violence, and limited opportunities associated with Jim Crow laws in the South.

The migration reshaped American communities.

Black neighborhoods expanded in northern cities.

Churches, newspapers, businesses, and civic organizations grew.

New cultural and political movements developed.

But migrants also encountered discrimination in housing, employment, and public life.

Racial tensions sometimes intensified.

The Great Migration would continue for decades.

It became one of the most important population changes in twentieth-century American history.

IMMIGRANTS AND WARTIME LOYALTY

A Country of Many Backgrounds

The United States was home to millions of immigrants and their descendants.

Many had family connections to countries involved in the war.

German Americans formed one of the nation's largest ancestry groups.

Other communities maintained ties to Austria-Hungary, Italy, Russia, Britain, Ireland, and many additional places.

The war placed some communities under intense scrutiny.

Anti-German sentiment increased.

German-language newspapers and schools faced pressure.

Some businesses and organizations changed names.

Individuals were sometimes subjected to harassment, discrimination, or violence.

The government also imposed restrictions on certain noncitizens from enemy countries.

These developments revealed how international conflict could influence attitudes toward national identity and citizenship.

Many immigrants supported the American war effort.

Some served in the military.

Others worked in factories, farms, and communities.

But wartime fear sometimes blurred distinctions between foreign governments and Americans with ancestral connections to those countries.

The experience became part of the larger history of civil liberties during national emergencies.

THE COMMITTEE ON PUBLIC INFORMATION

Shaping Public Support

In April 1917, the Wilson administration established the Committee on Public Information.

George Creel led the organization.

The committee coordinated public information and publicity supporting the American war effort.

It distributed posters, pamphlets, films, and other materials.

Speakers known as Four Minute Men delivered short patriotic addresses in public settings.

The committee sought to explain government policies, encourage enlistment and bond purchases, and build support for the war.

Its work reflected the growing importance of mass communication.

Newspapers, motion pictures, and public campaigns could reach large audiences.

But the committee's activities also raised questions about the relationship between government information and propaganda.

Supporters believed public communication was necessary to sustain a national emergency effort.

Critics worried about manipulation, censorship, and pressure against dissenting opinions.

The experience demonstrated the power of modern communications in shaping public attitudes.

CIVIL LIBERTIES DURING WAR

The Espionage Act of 1917

Wartime mobilization created serious constitutional controversies.

In June 1917, Congress passed the Espionage Act.

The law prohibited certain activities involving national defense information and interference with military operations or recruitment.

Government officials argued that the legislation was necessary to protect the war effort.

But enforcement raised concerns about freedom of expression and political dissent.

Some individuals were prosecuted for speeches, publications, and activities opposing the war or military recruitment.

Socialists, labor activists, pacifists, and other critics faced increased scrutiny.

The government sought to prevent interference with military operations.

Civil liberties advocates questioned whether enforcement went beyond legitimate security needs.

The debate would intensify in 1918.

THE SEDITION ACT OF 1918

The Limits of Wartime Speech

In May 1918, Congress enacted amendments commonly called the Sedition Act.

The legislation expanded restrictions on certain forms of speech concerning the government, Constitution, military, and war effort.

The law was used against some critics of the administration and the conflict.

Supporters argued that wartime unity and military security required strong protections against interference and disloyal activity.

Opponents argued that the legislation threatened constitutional freedoms.

The First Amendment protected freedom of speech and the press.

But the scope of those protections during wartime remained disputed.

Federal courts would consider cases arising from wartime prosecutions.

In 1919, the Supreme Court upheld convictions in several important decisions, including Schenck v. United States.

Later constitutional doctrine would establish stronger protections for political expression than those applied in these cases.

The wartime controversy raised a question that would recur throughout American history.

How far should government authority extend during a national emergency, and how can constitutional freedoms be protected when public fear is high?

LABOR AND THE WAR ECONOMY

Workers Become Essential to Production

Industrial workers were central to the war effort.

Factories required skilled and unskilled labor.

Shipyards needed workers.

Railroads required crews and maintenance personnel.

Mining operations supplied coal and other materials.

The demand for labor created opportunities for some workers.

But inflation reduced purchasing power.

Working conditions could remain dangerous.

Long hours and production pressures contributed to disputes.

Labor organizations sought improved wages and conditions.

The federal government attempted to reduce industrial disruptions that might interfere with military production.

In 1918, the National War Labor Board was established.

It sought to mediate disputes between employers and workers.

The board supported certain principles involving collective bargaining and labor standards, while also seeking to prevent strikes and lockouts that could disrupt wartime production.

The arrangement reflected the government's interest in maintaining industrial stability.

It also demonstrated the growing significance of organized labor in national economic affairs.

THE WAR REACHES AMERICAN HOMES

Families and Communities Carry the Burden

The war affected Americans far beyond military camps and factories.

Families watched relatives leave for service.

Parents worried about sons crossing the Atlantic.

Spouses faced separation.

Children participated in school programs supporting the war effort.

Churches and civic organizations organized relief activities.

Communities raised funds for humanitarian organizations.

Volunteers prepared supplies for soldiers.

The American Red Cross expanded its wartime activities.

Families adjusted consumption habits.

People purchased bonds when they could afford them.

Some households experienced rising incomes from wartime employment.

Others struggled with inflation and shortages.

The war did not affect every American in the same way.

Economic circumstances, occupation, race, gender, and location influenced individual experiences.

But across the country, the conflict became part of daily life.

For many Americans, the war was no longer a distant event described in newspapers.

It was a personal experience.

1918 — THE WAR ENTERS A CRITICAL YEAR

Russia Leaves the Conflict

The political upheaval in Russia changed the military situation.

In 1917, the Russian monarchy had collapsed.

Later that year, the Bolsheviks seized power.

The new government sought to withdraw from the war.

On March 3, 1918, Soviet Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers.

Russia's withdrawal allowed Germany to transfer substantial forces from the Eastern Front to the Western Front.

German commanders recognized that increasing numbers of American soldiers were arriving in Europe.

They hoped to achieve victory before American manpower could become decisive.

The result was a major German offensive in the spring of 1918.

The war was entering one of its most dangerous phases.

THE GERMAN SPRING OFFENSIVE

A Final Attempt at Victory

In March 1918, German forces launched a series of major attacks on the Western Front.

The offensive initially achieved significant territorial gains.

German troops broke through some Allied positions.

British and French forces faced intense pressure.

The situation became serious enough that Allied commanders strengthened their coordination.

French General Ferdinand Foch was given increasing authority to coordinate Allied military operations.

German forces advanced toward important positions in France.

But the offensive encountered growing difficulties.

The attacking armies suffered heavy casualties.

Supply lines became strained.

Troops were exhausted.

The Allies continued resisting.

And American forces were arriving in increasing numbers.

Germany had hoped to win before the United States could make a decisive contribution.

Instead, the offensive helped exhaust German military strength.

The Allies began preparing their response.

AMERICANS ENTER MAJOR COMBAT

The Battle of Cantigny

On May 28, 1918, American forces launched an attack against German positions at Cantigny in France.

The operation involved troops of the U.S. 1st Division.

American soldiers captured the village and defended their positions against German counterattacks.

The battle was relatively limited compared with the enormous campaigns fought elsewhere on the Western Front.

But it was significant for the American Army.

It demonstrated that American units could conduct coordinated offensive operations under difficult conditions.

The victory strengthened confidence in the growing American Expeditionary Forces.

Larger battles would soon follow.

BELLEAU WOOD

American Marines and Soldiers in Battle

In June 1918, American forces fought German troops in and around Belleau Wood.

The battle occurred during a period of intense German pressure on Allied positions near the Marne River.

American Marines and Army soldiers faced difficult terrain and determined resistance.

The fighting involved machine guns, artillery, and close combat.

Casualties were heavy.

The battle became an important episode in Marine Corps history.

But the American contribution involved multiple units and branches of service.

The fighting helped stop German advances in the area.

It also demonstrated the increasing importance of American troops on the Western Front.

The soldiers who had arrived in France during the previous year were now engaged in major combat.

Their experience was no longer confined to training camps and preparation.

They were participating directly in the struggle for the future of Europe.

CHÂTEAU-THIERRY AND THE SECOND BATTLE OF THE MARNE

The Allied Position Strengthens

American forces also participated in fighting near Château-Thierry and during the Second Battle of the Marne.

In July 1918, German armies launched another major offensive.

The Allies resisted.

American divisions fought alongside French and other Allied forces.

The German attack failed to achieve its objectives.

Allied armies then began counteroffensive operations.

The Second Battle of the Marne marked an important shift in momentum.

Germany's ability to sustain major offensive operations was weakening.

The Allies were increasingly capable of coordinated attacks.

American manpower contributed to the changing balance.

By the summer of 1918, the United States had become an important military participant in the conflict.

THE COST OF AMERICAN PARTICIPATION

The Reality of Modern Warfare

American soldiers encountered the same destructive conditions that had devastated European armies.

Artillery bombardments caused enormous casualties.

Machine-gun fire made advances dangerous.

Chemical weapons injured soldiers and complicated battlefield operations.

Medical personnel worked under difficult conditions.

Wounded soldiers required evacuation and treatment.

Some returned to duty.

Others suffered permanent injuries.

Many never returned home.

The experience of combat affected soldiers physically and psychologically.

Families in the United States received news of deaths and injuries.

Communities organized memorials and support efforts.

The war's human cost was becoming increasingly visible.

American participation was helping strengthen the Allied position.

But victory would come at a terrible price.

THE INFLUENZA PANDEMIC OF 1918

Another Crisis During Wartime

As the war continued, a deadly influenza pandemic spread across the world.

The pandemic affected military camps, ships, cities, and rural communities.

Crowded conditions helped the disease spread.

Troop movements contributed to its international reach.

Military personnel became ill.

Civilians suffered as well.

The pandemic killed tens of millions of people worldwide.

In the United States, approximately 675,000 people died during the pandemic, according to commonly cited historical estimates.

The disease affected young adults at unusually high rates compared with many seasonal influenza outbreaks.

Hospitals struggled.

Communities experienced fear and grief.

Public health authorities attempted to reduce transmission through measures that varied by location.

The pandemic demonstrated that the war's human consequences extended beyond battlefield injuries.

Disease became another major threat to soldiers and civilians.

The United States was fighting a war overseas while confronting a public health emergency at home.

THE NATION APPROACHES A TURNING POINT

By the summer of 1918, the United States had changed dramatically.

A small peacetime army had expanded into a force numbering in the millions.

American soldiers were fighting in France.

Factories were producing military equipment.

Railroads operated under federal direction.

Farmers and households supported food conservation efforts.

Women had entered additional wartime occupations.

Black Americans had served in uniform and participated in a major migration that was reshaping cities.

Immigrant communities had contributed to the war effort while sometimes facing suspicion and discrimination.

Labor organizations and federal agencies were working through disputes over production and working conditions.

The government had expanded its economic and administrative responsibilities.

And wartime restrictions on expression had generated constitutional controversy.

The war had become a defining national experience.

But the fighting was not finished.

The largest American offensive of the conflict still lay ahead.

Germany remained capable of fierce resistance.

The Allies were preparing to press their advantage.

The final months of 1918 would determine the military outcome.

WHAT AMERICA'S MOBILIZATION CHANGED

The American war effort produced several important developments.

First, the United States demonstrated its ability to mobilize enormous national resources.

Military recruitment, industrial production, transportation, and finance were coordinated on an unprecedented scale.

Second, the federal government assumed expanded responsibilities during wartime.

Agencies directed or influenced production, transportation, food distribution, and public communication.

Third, the war changed the experiences of American workers and families.

Employment opportunities expanded in some industries, while inflation, separation, and military service created new burdens.

Fourth, the war influenced the movement for women's political rights.

Women's contributions became part of the broader public debate over citizenship and representation.

Fifth, Black Americans contributed significantly to the war while continuing to confront discrimination.

Military service and the Great Migration became important parts of the continuing struggle for equality.

Sixth, wartime legislation raised serious constitutional questions.

The Espionage and Sedition Acts demonstrated the tension between national security and freedom of expression.

Seventh, American participation strengthened the Allied military position.

The arrival of increasing numbers of American soldiers contributed to the changing balance on the Western Front.

Finally, the war demonstrated the enormous human cost of modern industrial conflict.

American soldiers and civilians experienced death, injury, disease, and disruption.

The United States had become a major participant in a global war.

And the experience would influence the nation's political and economic future long after the fighting ended.

THE GREAT EXPERIMENT: LIBERTY, RESPONSIBILITY, AND NATIONAL POWER

The founders established a constitutional republic in which government authority was divided among institutions accountable through different processes.

Congress possessed the power to declare war, raise and support armies, and provide for national defense.

The president served as commander in chief.

The courts interpreted constitutional disputes.

These arrangements were intended to prevent unchecked concentration of power.

But the founders also understood that national emergencies could require extraordinary government action.

World War I brought those questions into sharp focus.

Congress authorized military service through the Selective Service Act.

The federal government coordinated industrial production and transportation.

The Treasury raised revenue and borrowed money.

The president directed military operations through the armed forces.

Courts considered disputes involving national authority and individual rights.

These actions demonstrated the capacity of the American constitutional system to mobilize national resources.

But they also raised difficult questions.

How much authority should the federal government exercise during war?

When should emergency powers end?

How should freedom of expression be protected when the government believes national security is threatened?

What responsibilities do citizens have to their country?

And what obligations does the government have to preserve constitutional rights while asking citizens to make extraordinary sacrifices?

Americans did not agree on every answer.

Some believed wartime measures were necessary for national survival.

Others feared that expanded authority could threaten the liberties the country was fighting to defend.

These disagreements reflected a central feature of the American experiment.

A constitutional republic must possess the ability to defend itself while remaining accountable to the people and the principles on which it was established.

The war tested that balance.

It also demonstrated that the consequences of national decisions reached far beyond Washington.

They affected soldiers in France.

Workers in factories.

Farmers in rural communities.

Families purchasing bonds.

Women seeking political representation.

Black Americans demanding equal citizenship.

And immigrants attempting to navigate loyalty, identity, and public suspicion.

The American war effort was not the story of one president, one general, or one institution.

It was the story of millions of people participating in a national undertaking.

The United States had entered the war through a constitutional decision.

Its people were now carrying the burden of that decision.

And the final outcome was approaching.

THE STORY CONTINUES

PART IV OF V — THE WAR TO END ALL WARS

The Final Offensive, the Armistice, and the Search for Peace

1918–1919

The next chapter follows the final months of the First World War.

American soldiers will participate in the Saint-Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne offensives.

Allied armies will push German forces back across the Western Front.

The Central Powers will begin to collapse.

Germany will confront political upheaval.

And on November 11, 1918, the guns will finally fall silent.

But the end of the fighting will not resolve the questions created by the war.

President Wilson will travel to Europe to participate in the peace negotiations.

His Fourteen Points will influence debates over the postwar order.

And the Treaty of Versailles will attempt to establish a new international settlement.

America has helped change the course of the war. Now it will help confront the difficult task of building the peace.

Our Money Matters. Our Choices Matter. Our Voice Matters.

The People. The Voice. The Future.

Politics 1776