THE GREAT EXPERIMENT: WORLD WAR I

PART V OF V — THE PEACE THAT CHANGED THE WORLD

America After the War and the Road to the Roaring Twenties

1919–1920

Politics 1776

THE WAR WAS OVER. THE WORLD WAS NOT THE SAME.

On November 11, 1918, the guns fell silent across the Western Front.

After more than four years of devastating conflict, the First World War had come to an end.

Across Europe, exhausted soldiers emerged from their positions. Families celebrated the news. Church bells rang. Crowds gathered in streets and public squares.

In the United States, Americans welcomed the armistice with relief and excitement.

For millions of families, the announcement carried the hope that husbands, sons, brothers, and friends would soon return home.

But peace did not mean that life could simply return to the way it had been.

The war had changed the world.

Four major empires had collapsed or were undergoing fundamental transformation.

New countries were emerging.

International borders were being reconsidered.

European economies faced enormous debts and reconstruction costs.

Millions of soldiers had been killed or wounded.

Entire communities had been devastated.

And the influenza pandemic continued to claim lives around the world.

The United States had entered the conflict in 1917 as an industrial nation with a relatively small standing army.

By the end of 1918, it had mobilized millions of service members, expanded federal authority, coordinated industrial production, and helped the Allies achieve victory.

America's international influence had grown.

Its economic position had changed.

Its citizens had experienced new responsibilities, sacrifices, and political debates.

But one of the most difficult questions remained unanswered.

What should America's role be in the world now that the war was over?

President Woodrow Wilson believed the United States should help establish a new international system intended to prevent another catastrophic war.

Others believed the nation should avoid permanent political commitments that might draw it into future European conflicts.

At home, Americans were confronting economic uncertainty, labor unrest, racial violence, political fears, and demands for expanded rights.

The country had helped win the war.

Now it had to navigate the peace.

And the next two years would reveal that ending a war was not the same as resolving its consequences.

THE SOLDIERS COME HOME

Returning to a Country That Had Changed

Following the armistice, the United States began bringing its military forces home.

The process required enormous organization.

Ships transported soldiers across the Atlantic.

Military authorities processed discharges.

Equipment and supplies had to be accounted for.

Wounded service members required continuing medical care.

Some troops remained overseas temporarily.

Others returned to communities across the United States.

By the end of the war, approximately 4.7 million Americans had served in the armed forces.

About two million had reached Europe.

Their experiences varied enormously.

Some had endured trench warfare, artillery bombardments, and the loss of fellow soldiers.

Others had served in transportation, medical care, communications, administration, or logistics.

Many had never seen combat.

But military service had taken them away from ordinary civilian life.

Returning soldiers faced different challenges.

Some resumed previous occupations.

Others sought new employment.

Some returned to farms and family businesses.

Wounded veterans needed treatment and rehabilitation.

Many carried memories of the war that would remain with them throughout their lives.

The federal government had to manage demobilization while the economy adjusted to the end of wartime production.

For some Americans, the transition was relatively smooth.

For others, it was difficult.

The war had ended overseas.

But its effects continued in American homes.

THE ECONOMY RETURNS TO PEACE

From Military Production to Civilian Life

During the war, American factories had produced enormous quantities of military equipment and supplies.

Government contracts supported industrial activity.

Railroads operated under federal control.

Farmers responded to increased demand.

Millions of workers participated in the wartime economy.

The armistice changed those conditions.

Military orders were reduced or canceled.

Businesses began adjusting production.

Soldiers returned to the labor market.

Government agencies reconsidered wartime controls.

The transition created uncertainty.

Some industries experienced declining demand.

Workers worried about employment.

Businesses faced questions about prices, wages, and future markets.

Inflation remained a major problem.

The cost of living had risen substantially during the war.

Families found that wages did not always keep pace with prices.

Economic conditions varied across industries and communities.

The United States experienced a brief recession after the war and a much sharper downturn beginning in 1920.

The economy was moving toward a new peacetime structure.

But that transition was neither immediate nor painless.

THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT STEPS BACK

What Happens to Wartime Authority?

The war had required extraordinary government coordination.

Federal agencies had influenced industrial production, transportation, food supplies, and public communication.

Congress had approved new taxes and borrowing.

The government had expanded its military and administrative responsibilities.

After the fighting ended, Americans began debating which wartime arrangements should continue.

The United States Railroad Administration remained in control of railroad operations for a period after the armistice.

Federal operation ended in 1920.

Other wartime agencies reduced their activities or were dissolved.

Military demobilization decreased the number of Americans serving in uniform.

The government began adjusting from emergency mobilization toward ordinary administration.

But the war had demonstrated that the federal government could exercise substantial influence over the national economy during a crisis.

That experience would remain part of American political debate.

Some believed wartime coordination had demonstrated the value of national planning in extraordinary circumstances.

Others believed emergency powers should be temporary and that private enterprise should resume a more independent role.

The disagreement reflected an enduring question in American government.

How should a constitutional republic balance the need for national action during emergencies with the importance of limiting government authority when those emergencies end?

The answer would continue evolving throughout the twentieth century.

PRESIDENT WILSON RETURNS FROM EUROPE

A Vision for a Different International Order

President Woodrow Wilson had traveled to Europe to participate in the Paris Peace Conference.

His presence reflected the increasingly important role of the United States in international affairs.

Wilson believed the peace settlement should establish principles capable of reducing the risk of another major war.

His Fourteen Points had outlined a vision involving diplomacy, international cooperation, territorial adjustments, and a proposed association of nations.

At Paris, Wilson worked with British, French, Italian, and other representatives to negotiate the postwar settlement.

The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919.

The agreement imposed territorial, military, and financial obligations on Germany.

It also incorporated the Covenant of the League of Nations.

Wilson considered the League essential to lasting peace.

He believed an international organization could provide a forum for resolving disputes and discourage aggression.

But the agreement faced a major obstacle in the United States.

The Constitution required Senate consent before the president could ratify a treaty.

And the Senate was deeply divided.

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS DEBATE

International Cooperation or Dangerous Commitment?

The League of Nations became one of the most important political controversies of the postwar period.

Supporters believed the organization offered a new approach to international security.

They argued that nations needed a permanent institution through which disputes could be addressed.

After the destruction of World War I, many believed the international community had an obligation to develop better methods for preventing future conflicts.

Wilson argued that the League could help preserve peace.

But critics questioned the implications for American sovereignty.

Some worried that League membership might involve the United States in conflicts that did not directly concern American interests.

Others feared that the League's collective-security provisions could place pressure on the United States to use military force.

Article X of the League Covenant became especially controversial.

It committed members to respect and preserve the territorial integrity and political independence of other members against external aggression, with the League Council advising on means of fulfilling that obligation.

Critics argued that such commitments could interfere with independent American decision-making.

Supporters maintained that the League did not eliminate Congress's constitutional authority over war.

The debate concerned not only international policy but also the relationship between treaty obligations and the American constitutional system.

SENATOR HENRY CABOT LODGE

The Senate Challenges Wilson

Republican Senator Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts became a leading figure in the treaty debate.

Lodge chaired the Senate Foreign Relations Committee.

He did not simply reject every possibility of international cooperation.

Instead, he advocated reservations intended to protect American sovereignty and congressional authority.

Other senators took different positions.

Some supported the treaty without substantial changes.

Some supported ratification with reservations.

A group of opponents, often called irreconcilables, rejected League membership more fundamentally.

Wilson resisted the reservations proposed by Lodge and his allies.

He believed some would weaken the League and undermine the settlement he had negotiated.

The disagreement became increasingly personal and political.

Wilson was a Democratic president.

Republicans controlled the Senate following the 1918 congressional elections.

But the dispute cannot be understood solely as a disagreement between political parties.

Senators within both parties held different views.

The central questions involved constitutional authority, international commitments, national independence, and the best means of preserving peace.

WILSON TAKES HIS CASE TO THE PEOPLE

The 1919 Speaking Tour

In September 1919, Wilson began a nationwide speaking tour to build public support for the treaty and League of Nations.

He traveled across the country.

He addressed large audiences.

He argued that the League offered an opportunity to prevent future wars.

The president hoped public opinion would encourage senators to approve the agreement.

But the journey placed enormous physical demands on him.

Wilson had already experienced significant health problems.

During the tour, his condition deteriorated.

He canceled the remaining appearances and returned to Washington.

On October 2, 1919, Wilson suffered a severe stroke.

The stroke left him seriously impaired.

His wife, Edith Wilson, and senior officials played important roles in managing access to the president and the flow of government business during his illness.

Wilson remained in office.

But his capacity to participate in the treaty negotiations and other responsibilities was greatly reduced.

The country faced an unusual and difficult situation.

The president was seriously ill during one of the most important foreign-policy debates in American history.

THE SENATE REJECTS THE TREATY

November 1919 and March 1920

The Senate considered competing proposals concerning the Treaty of Versailles.

Wilson opposed accepting the treaty with Lodge's reservations.

The disagreements prevented the formation of the two-thirds majority required for consent.

In November 1919, the Senate failed to approve the treaty.

Another effort in March 1920 also failed.

The United States did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles.

It did not join the League of Nations.

The result was historically significant.

The American president had been one of the League's principal architects.

But the United States remained outside the organization.

The League was established without American membership.

In 1921, the United States would formally end its state of war with Germany through a separate process and conclude a separate peace treaty.

The Senate debate demonstrated the importance of constitutional checks on executive authority.

The president could negotiate international agreements.

But he could not ratify treaties without the constitutionally required consent.

The disagreement also revealed how deeply Americans differed over the country's international future.

THE WORLD AFTER VERSAILLES

Peace Without Complete Stability

The peace settlement attempted to create a new international order.

But many disputes remained unresolved.

Germany faced territorial losses, military restrictions, reparations obligations, and domestic political instability.

New European countries faced questions about borders, ethnic minorities, and national identity.

The collapse of Austria-Hungary created new political arrangements across central and southeastern Europe.

Russia remained divided by revolution and civil war.

Former Ottoman territories faced new systems of political administration and foreign influence.

The League of Nations offered a mechanism for international cooperation.

But its authority depended heavily on the willingness of member governments to act.

The absence of the United States limited the organization's potential influence.

The settlement also disappointed many people living under colonial rule.

Some had hoped the language of self-determination would lead to independence.

Instead, major colonial empires continued exercising extensive power.

The peace did not create the stable international system many had hoped for.

But neither was another world war inevitable.

The years that followed would be shaped by political choices, economic developments, diplomatic successes and failures, and the actions of governments and individuals.

The Treaty of Versailles became one important part of that history.

AMERICA'S FIRST RED SCARE

Fear of Revolution and Political Violence

While Wilson debated the peace treaty, Americans faced growing political anxiety at home.

The Russian Revolution had brought the Bolsheviks to power in 1917.

The new Soviet government promoted revolutionary ideas that challenged existing political and economic systems.

Across Europe, political upheaval continued after the war.

In the United States, some Americans feared that revolutionary movements might spread.

Labor strikes, radical political organizations, and episodes of violence intensified those concerns.

In 1919, a series of bombings and attempted bombings targeted public officials and other prominent figures.

The attacks contributed to widespread alarm.

Government officials investigated suspected radical organizations.

Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer became a leading figure in the federal response.

The period became known as the First Red Scare.

THE PALMER RAIDS

Security and Civil Liberties

During late 1919 and early 1920, federal authorities conducted raids targeting suspected radicals.

Many individuals were arrested.

Some were detained without adequate legal protections.

Noncitizens accused of involvement in radical political movements faced deportation proceedings.

The raids raised serious concerns about due process, freedom of expression, and the government's response to political dissent.

Supporters of the investigations argued that revolutionary violence posed a genuine threat to public safety.

Critics contended that federal authorities had exceeded lawful boundaries and treated political beliefs as evidence of criminal activity.

The episode demonstrated how fear could influence the exercise of government power.

The United States had just fought a war in which the administration emphasized democracy and political freedom.

Yet at home, Americans were debating the limits of those freedoms during a period of perceived danger.

The contradiction became an important part of the nation's postwar history.

1919 — A YEAR OF LABOR UNREST

Workers Demand Better Conditions

The end of the war created difficult economic conditions for many American workers.

Prices remained high.

Wages did not always keep pace.

Some wartime employment opportunities disappeared.

Workers sought improved pay, shorter hours, and better conditions.

A major wave of strikes occurred in 1919.

Workers in several industries participated.

The Seattle General Strike began in February.

The Boston police strike occurred in September.

Steelworkers launched a major nationwide strike later that month.

Coal miners also participated in a large strike.

The disputes involved different circumstances and demands.

Some centered on wages.

Others concerned working hours, union recognition, or workplace conditions.

Employers and government officials responded in different ways.

Some negotiations produced agreements.

Other disputes resulted in confrontation and defeat for organized labor.

The strikes became part of the broader debate over the future of American industry.

THE BOSTON POLICE STRIKE

Public Safety and Labor Rights

In September 1919, Boston police officers went on strike after disputes involving working conditions and union affiliation.

The walkout created serious public concern.

Massachusetts Governor Calvin Coolidge became a prominent national figure during the controversy.

He supported efforts to restore order and opposed the striking officers' actions.

The dispute raised difficult questions.

Could public safety employees strike?

How should governments address labor grievances within essential services?

What obligations did public employees have to the communities they served?

Coolidge's response attracted national attention.

His growing reputation would later contribute to his selection as the Republican vice-presidential nominee in 1920.

The episode illustrated how local labor disputes could influence national politics.

THE STEEL STRIKE OF 1919

Industry, Labor, and Public Opinion

In September 1919, hundreds of thousands of steelworkers participated in a major strike.

Organizers sought union recognition and improvements in working conditions.

Steel companies resisted.

The dispute became highly controversial.

Employers and some public officials associated the strike with radical political movements.

Labor organizers argued that workers were seeking legitimate economic rights.

The strike eventually failed to achieve its principal objectives.

The conflict reflected the difficult relationship between industrial labor and major corporations.

It also demonstrated how the Red Scare influenced public attitudes toward organized labor.

Economic grievances could become entangled with fears of political revolution.

The resulting atmosphere made compromise more difficult.

THE RED SUMMER OF 1919

Racial Violence Across America

The postwar period also brought a wave of racial violence.

During the summer and autumn of 1919, racial conflicts erupted in numerous American communities.

The period became known as the Red Summer.

Violence occurred in cities including Chicago and Washington, D.C., as well as in rural areas.

Black Americans were attacked in several communities.

Some incidents involved white mobs attempting to enforce racial boundaries or intimidate Black residents.

Black communities also organized efforts to defend themselves.

The causes varied by location.

Housing competition, employment disputes, racial discrimination, rumors, and longstanding hostility contributed to tensions.

The Great Migration had brought many Black Americans from the South to northern cities.

Their arrival transformed urban neighborhoods and labor markets.

But it also exposed migrants to discrimination and conflict.

The violence demonstrated that the end of the war had not resolved the country's racial inequalities.

BLACK VETERANS AND THE STRUGGLE FOR EQUAL CITIZENSHIP

Service Did Not Guarantee Equality

Black Americans had served in the military during World War I.

They had contributed to industrial production and the civilian war effort.

Many believed their service strengthened their claims to equal treatment under the law.

But returning Black veterans often encountered the same discrimination they had experienced before the war.

Segregation remained widespread.

Voting rights were restricted in many southern states through discriminatory laws and practices.

Racial violence continued.

Some veterans became more active in demanding equal rights.

Civil rights organizations expanded their advocacy.

The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, founded in 1909, continued challenging discrimination and racial violence.

The war had demonstrated Black Americans' commitment to the country.

But the struggle for full citizenship remained unfinished.

The contradictions between democratic ideals and unequal treatment would continue shaping American history.

WOMEN APPROACH A CONSTITUTIONAL VICTORY

The Suffrage Movement Reaches a Turning Point

For generations, American women had organized to secure voting rights.

The movement had begun long before World War I.

Women had petitioned legislatures, held conventions, published newspapers, organized political campaigns, and challenged legal restrictions.

By the early twentieth century, several states had already extended voting rights to women.

But the movement continued seeking a national constitutional amendment.

World War I changed the political environment.

Women contributed to wartime industry, nursing, public service, agriculture, and community organizations.

Suffrage advocates emphasized those contributions.

They argued that women who participated in national responsibilities should also possess equal political rights.

Different organizations pursued different strategies.

Some worked through lobbying and electoral politics.

Others used demonstrations and direct pressure.

The movement continued despite arrests, opposition, and political setbacks.

By 1919, support for a federal amendment had reached a critical point.

THE NINETEENTH AMENDMENT

A Major Expansion of American Democracy

On June 4, 1919, Congress approved the proposed Nineteenth Amendment and sent it to the states for ratification.

The amendment prohibited the United States and the states from denying or abridging the right to vote on account of sex.

Ratification required approval by three-fourths of the states.

Suffrage organizations continued campaigning.

State legislatures debated the proposal.

Supporters and opponents organized political efforts.

On August 18, 1920, Tennessee became the thirty-sixth state to ratify the amendment.

That provided the required three-fourths majority.

The amendment was officially certified on August 26, 1920.

It represented one of the most important expansions of voting rights in American history.

Millions of women gained constitutional protection against voting discrimination based on sex.

But the amendment did not eliminate every barrier to voting.

Black women in many southern states continued facing discriminatory restrictions that also affected Black men.

Native American women faced additional citizenship and voting barriers.

Other women encountered restrictions connected to race, ancestry, and local election practices.

The Nineteenth Amendment was a major constitutional achievement.

The broader struggle for equal access to the ballot continued.

THE FIRST NATIONAL PROHIBITION LAW TAKES EFFECT

The Eighteenth Amendment

Another major constitutional change occurred during the postwar transition.

The movement to prohibit alcoholic beverages had developed over many decades.

Supporters associated prohibition with public health, family welfare, religious values, workplace safety, and social reform.

Opponents questioned whether prohibition would be effective or whether government should regulate personal consumption so extensively.

The movement gained strength during the Progressive Era.

Wartime concerns about grain supplies and industrial efficiency also contributed to restrictions on alcohol.

The Eighteenth Amendment was ratified in January 1919.

National prohibition took effect in January 1920.

The amendment prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of intoxicating liquors for beverage purposes, subject to its terms and implementing legislation.

The Volstead Act provided enforcement provisions.

Prohibition would become one of the defining issues of the 1920s.

Its enforcement created major political, legal, and social controversies.

Illegal alcohol markets expanded.

Organized criminal enterprises became involved in production and distribution.

Debates over personal liberty, federal authority, and law enforcement intensified.

The amendment reflected the influence of reform movements on American constitutional development.

Its consequences would become increasingly visible in the next decade.

THE INFLUENZA PANDEMIC CONTINUES TO CAST A SHADOW

A Nation Mourning More Than War

The influenza pandemic of 1918 had devastated communities across the United States and the world.

The disease spread through military camps, transportation networks, workplaces, and households.

Many victims were young adults.

Hospitals and medical workers faced extraordinary demands.

The pandemic continued affecting communities into 1919 and beyond.

Its effects overlapped with the consequences of World War I.

Families sometimes lost relatives to military service and disease within a short period.

Communities struggled with grief.

Public health officials debated how best to respond to contagious illness.

The pandemic demonstrated the vulnerability of modern societies to infectious disease.

It also revealed the importance of public health institutions, medical research, and community cooperation.

For Americans living through the postwar years, the pandemic was another reason the return to ordinary life proved difficult.

THE ECONOMIC DOWNTURN OF 1920

A Difficult Transition

By 1920, the American economy faced serious problems.

Wartime production had ended.

Prices had risen sharply during and immediately after the war.

Businesses were adjusting to changing demand.

Federal monetary policy tightened.

Credit conditions became more restrictive.

The economy entered a severe recession beginning in 1920 and continuing into 1921.

Industrial production declined.

Unemployment increased.

Farm prices fell sharply.

Many farmers who had expanded production during the war faced financial difficulties.

Businesses struggled with reduced demand and changing market conditions.

The downturn affected Americans differently.

Some households experienced unemployment.

Others faced debt and declining incomes.

Farmers confronted especially difficult conditions in many regions.

The recession became an important part of the transition into the 1920s.

Although economic recovery followed, prosperity would not be evenly distributed.

The decade ahead would bring extraordinary growth in some industries alongside persistent hardship in others.

THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION OF 1920

A Nation Looks Toward a Different Future

The presidential election of 1920 took place during a period of political and economic uncertainty.

Woodrow Wilson's health had deteriorated significantly.

His administration had been deeply involved in the war and the peace negotiations.

The Treaty of Versailles remained unratified by the United States.

The country had experienced labor unrest, racial violence, political fears, inflation, and economic disruption.

Many Americans wanted a change in direction.

The Republican Party nominated Senator Warren G. Harding of Ohio.

Calvin Coolidge of Massachusetts became his running mate.

The Democratic Party nominated Governor James M. Cox of Ohio.

Franklin D. Roosevelt, then serving as assistant secretary of the Navy, became the Democratic vice-presidential nominee.

The election addressed the League of Nations, economic conditions, government policy, and the country's postwar direction.

Harding emphasized a return to stability after years of upheaval.

His campaign became associated with the phrase “return to normalcy.”

The message appealed to many voters.

WARREN G. HARDING WINS THE PRESIDENCY

November 1920

Harding won a decisive victory.

He received approximately 60 percent of the popular vote.

He won 404 electoral votes.

Cox received 127 electoral votes.

The election marked a significant political transition.

The Republican Party regained the presidency.

The result reflected widespread dissatisfaction with conditions following the war, although voters held different views about the causes and solutions.

The election was also historically significant because it was the first presidential election held after ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment.

Women participated in the national election under the new constitutional protection against sex-based voting discrimination, although discriminatory barriers still prevented many eligible citizens from voting.

Harding would take office in March 1921.

The country was moving into a new decade.

The political priorities of the Wilson administration were giving way to a different approach.

THE UNITED STATES AND THE WORLD AFTER 1920

A Powerful Nation Debates Its Responsibilities

World War I had changed America's position in international affairs.

The United States had demonstrated the ability to mobilize a large military force and transport it overseas.

Its industries had supported a major international conflict.

Its financial institutions had become increasingly important to the world economy.

Its president had helped shape the peace negotiations.

But the Senate's rejection of the Treaty of Versailles demonstrated that Americans did not agree on the proper extent of international political commitments.

The United States did not join the League of Nations.

That decision did not mean the country withdrew entirely from world affairs.

American businesses continued trading internationally.

Banks participated in international finance.

Diplomats negotiated agreements.

The government maintained relationships with other nations.

The United States remained deeply connected to the global economy.

The debate concerned how the country should exercise its influence.

Should it join permanent international security organizations?

Should it avoid obligations that might require military intervention?

Could economic relationships and diplomacy preserve peace without formal alliance commitments?

These questions would continue shaping American foreign policy.

The First World War had not provided permanent answers.

It had made the questions impossible to ignore.

WHAT WORLD WAR I CHANGED IN AMERICA

The consequences of World War I reached far beyond the battlefield.

First, the war expanded America's international influence.

The United States emerged as a major military, industrial, and financial power.

Second, it demonstrated the capacity of the federal government to organize national resources during an emergency.

Military mobilization, transportation coordination, industrial production, and wartime finance required extensive government action.

Third, it created lasting debates about constitutional authority and individual freedom.

The draft, wartime speech restrictions, federal investigations, and international treaty obligations raised questions about the limits of government power.

Fourth, the war contributed to changes in American society.

Women's wartime contributions became part of the continuing movement for suffrage.

Black Americans served in uniform and participated in the Great Migration while confronting persistent discrimination.

Workers and businesses adjusted to new economic conditions.

Fifth, the postwar years exposed serious domestic tensions.

Labor unrest, racial violence, political fear, and economic instability challenged the country.

Sixth, the peace settlement reshaped international politics.

The collapse of empires, creation of new states, and Treaty of Versailles influenced the decades that followed.

Seventh, the United States faced a major debate over its responsibilities beyond its borders.

The League of Nations controversy revealed competing visions of national independence and international cooperation.

Finally, the war helped create the conditions that shaped the 1920s.

Industrial development, political change, consumer markets, social movements, and economic uncertainty would all influence the next decade.

The First World War did not create every change that followed.

Many developments had begun before 1914.

But the war accelerated some transformations, interrupted others, and introduced new challenges.

America entered the conflict as one kind of nation.

It emerged from the experience changed.

THE GREAT EXPERIMENT: THE PEOPLE, THE CONSTITUTION, AND THE RESPONSIBILITY OF PEACE

When the founders established the United States, they created a government intended to derive its authority from the people.

The Constitution divided power among institutions.

Congress received the authority to declare war, raise armies, regulate commerce, levy taxes, and approve federal spending.

The president became commander in chief and received responsibility for conducting foreign relations.

The Senate received an important role in approving treaties.

The courts were responsible for interpreting constitutional disputes.

These arrangements reflected a fundamental concern.

National power was necessary.

But it had to operate within a system of law, representation, and accountability.

World War I tested those principles.

Congress declared war in 1917.

The government mobilized the nation's resources.

Millions of Americans served in the military or supported the war effort at home.

The president directed military operations and participated in international peace negotiations.

But the constitutional system did not stop operating when the fighting ended.

The Senate exercised its authority to reject the Treaty of Versailles.

Citizens debated the nation's international obligations.

Courts considered questions involving wartime laws.

Political movements continued pressing for expanded rights.

And voters participated in the election of 1920, choosing a new direction for national leadership.

The war demonstrated that the American republic could act on an enormous scale.

The postwar years demonstrated that those actions remained subject to political disagreement, constitutional limits, and public judgment.

There were successes.

There were failures.

There were moments of extraordinary service and sacrifice.

There were also episodes of discrimination, repression, violence, and political fear.

The American experience after World War I cannot be reduced to a single lesson or political position.

It reveals a nation struggling to reconcile power with liberty, international responsibility with independence, and democratic ideals with the realities of its own society.

Those struggles were not new.

They had existed in different forms since the founding of the republic.

But the war brought them into a modern world of mass industry, global communication, international finance, and increasingly destructive military technology.

The founders had created a system intended to give the people a continuing voice in the government that represented them. World War I demonstrated how consequential that voice could become when national decisions affected millions of lives and the future of the world.

THE END OF WORLD WAR I — THE BEGINNING OF A NEW AMERICA

By the end of 1920, the United States was entering a different era.

The soldiers were home or returning.

The war's emergency institutions were being reduced or reorganized.

Women had secured a major constitutional victory through the Nineteenth Amendment.

Prohibition had begun.

The country was confronting a severe economic downturn.

Political leadership was changing.

American businesses were preparing for new opportunities.

Automobiles were becoming increasingly important.

Electricity was transforming homes and workplaces.

Radio was beginning to develop into a major form of mass communication.

Cities were expanding.

New cultural movements were emerging.

And Americans were debating the meaning of prosperity, freedom, tradition, and modern life.

The decade ahead would become famous for extraordinary economic growth, technological innovation, popular entertainment, and social change.

But beneath the excitement, important problems remained.

Racial discrimination continued.

Farmers faced economic hardship.

Immigration policy became increasingly restrictive.

Organized crime would expand under Prohibition.

Financial speculation would become an important part of the economy.

And the prosperity of the 1920s would prove more fragile than many Americans realized.

The First World War had ended.

The next chapter of American history was beginning.

The Great Experiment continued—not because the country had resolved every disagreement, but because its people continued living, working, voting, debating, and shaping the nation they shared.

THE STORY CONTINUES

THE GREAT EXPERIMENT: THE ROARING TWENTIES

A Nation Reinvents Itself

1920–1929

The next chapter follows America into one of the most recognizable decades in its history.

The automobile will transform transportation and daily life.

Radio will connect millions of Americans through shared news and entertainment.

Factories will develop new methods of mass production.

Consumer credit will change purchasing habits.

Jazz, motion pictures, and popular culture will reshape American society.

The Harlem Renaissance will become an extraordinary period of Black artistic and intellectual achievement.

Prohibition will create new conflicts between law enforcement, personal behavior, and organized crime.

Women will navigate changing social expectations and political opportunities.

Immigration restrictions and cultural tensions will reveal disagreements about national identity.

And beneath a growing stock market and expanding consumer economy, financial and economic weaknesses will begin accumulating.

The decade will become a symbol of modern American prosperity.

But its conclusion will bring one of the most devastating economic crises in the nation's history.

The war is over. America is changing. And the Roaring Twenties are about to begin.

Our Money Matters. Our Choices Matter. Our Voice Matters.

The People. The Voice. The Future.

Politics 1776