PART II OF V — AMERICA FACES A DECISION

Neutrality, Preparedness, Submarine Warfare, and the Road to War

1916–1917

Politics 1776

A NATION TRYING TO STAY OUT OF WAR

By the beginning of 1916, the First World War had been raging for nearly eighteen months.

Across Europe, the expectations of a short conflict had disappeared.

The armies of Germany, France, Britain, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and their allies had suffered enormous losses.

The Western Front had become a vast system of trenches, fortified positions, artillery batteries, and defensive barriers.

On the Eastern Front, armies fought across enormous distances.

The Ottoman Empire was engaged in campaigns stretching from the Caucasus to the Middle East.

The war had become a struggle not only between armies but between entire national economies.

Factories produced weapons and ammunition.

Railroads transported soldiers and supplies.

Governments borrowed enormous sums.

Farmers worked to feed military forces and civilian populations.

And families across the countries involved waited for news of loved ones.

The United States remained officially neutral.

President Woodrow Wilson had spent much of 1914 and 1915 attempting to preserve that position.

But neutrality had become increasingly difficult.

American businesses traded with nations at war.

British naval restrictions affected international commerce.

German submarines threatened merchant shipping.

The sinking of the Lusitania in May 1915 had killed 128 Americans and intensified public concern.

The United States had not entered the conflict.

But Americans were increasingly debating whether their country could remain outside it.

The question was no longer simply what was happening in Europe.

It was whether the United States could protect its rights, interests, and citizens without becoming a participant in the war.

1916 — THE WAR GROWS MORE DESTRUCTIVE

Verdun and the Somme

While Americans debated neutrality, the European war entered another devastating year.

In February 1916, German forces launched a major offensive against French positions around Verdun.

The battle continued for much of the year.

German commanders hoped to weaken the French army through sustained pressure.

French forces resisted.

Both sides suffered extraordinary casualties.

Verdun became one of the defining symbols of the war's destruction.

In July, British and French forces launched another major offensive along the Somme River.

The attack was intended partly to relieve pressure on French forces at Verdun and to weaken German defenses.

On July 1, 1916, the British Army suffered approximately 57,000 casualties, including more than 19,000 killed.

It was the deadliest single day in British military history.

The fighting continued for months.

Neither battle produced the decisive breakthrough its planners had hoped for.

The casualties demonstrated the destructive power of modern industrial warfare.

Machine guns, heavy artillery, and fortified positions made offensive operations extraordinarily costly.

Armies could lose thousands of soldiers without achieving major territorial gains.

The war was becoming a test of endurance.

And the United States was watching a conflict that showed no clear sign of ending.

THE NAVAL WAR REACHES A CRITICAL POINT

Britain, Germany, and Control of the Seas

The war at sea was becoming increasingly important.

Britain relied on naval power to protect its shipping routes and restrict supplies reaching Germany.

Germany sought ways to weaken Britain's economy and military capabilities.

The British blockade limited German access to important imports.

Germany's submarine campaign threatened vessels traveling to Allied ports.

Both strategies created disputes involving neutral countries.

The United States insisted that its citizens and businesses possessed rights under international law.

American officials protested British interference with neutral trade.

They also strongly objected to German submarine attacks that endangered passengers and crews.

The distinction was significant.

British restrictions could interfere with American commercial activity and property.

German torpedo attacks could destroy ships and kill civilians without warning.

Washington faced diplomatic problems with both countries.

But submarine warfare increasingly presented the more immediate danger to American lives.

THE SUSSEX INCIDENT

Another Test of American Neutrality

On March 24, 1916, a German submarine torpedoed the French passenger ferry Sussex in the English Channel.

The vessel was badly damaged.

Several passengers were killed, and Americans were among the injured.

The incident created another diplomatic crisis between Washington and Berlin.

Wilson warned Germany that the United States might break diplomatic relations unless submarine attacks were brought into compliance with American demands concerning passenger and merchant vessels.

Germany faced a difficult decision.

Its naval commanders believed unrestricted submarine warfare offered an opportunity to weaken Britain.

But German political leaders also understood that provoking American entry into the war could strengthen their enemies.

In May 1916, Germany issued what became known as the Sussex pledge.

Germany promised restrictions on submarine attacks against merchant vessels, subject to qualifications concerning its dispute with Britain's blockade.

The agreement temporarily reduced tensions.

Wilson's administration continued pursuing neutrality.

But the underlying disagreement had not disappeared.

Germany still believed submarine warfare could become decisive.

And the United States continued insisting that neutral rights must be respected.

The crisis had been postponed.

It had not been resolved.

AMERICA DEBATES MILITARY PREPAREDNESS

Could Neutrality Be Defended Without a Strong Military?

The European war raised questions about American military readiness.

The United States possessed an established Navy and a professional Army.

But its standing Army was small compared with the enormous forces mobilized by European powers.

Some Americans believed the country needed to expand its defenses.

Former President Theodore Roosevelt became one of the prominent advocates of military preparedness.

Roosevelt criticized Wilson's handling of several foreign-policy questions and argued that the United States needed to be prepared to defend its interests.

Other preparedness advocates emphasized the importance of modern equipment, military training, and naval strength.

They argued that remaining neutral did not eliminate the need for national defense.

Opponents raised different concerns.

Some feared that military expansion could increase the likelihood of intervention.

Others believed that diplomatic negotiations and international cooperation offered a better path.

Peace organizations warned about the economic and human costs of war.

The debate was not simply a disagreement between those who valued national security and those who did not.

Americans differed over how security could best be preserved.

Was military strength necessary to maintain neutrality, or could preparing for war make war more likely?

The question became increasingly important in national politics.

CONGRESS EXPANDS AMERICAN DEFENSES

The National Defense Act of 1916

In June 1916, Congress approved the National Defense Act.

The legislation provided for expansion and reorganization of the Army and National Guard.

It established a framework for increasing military manpower and improving readiness.

Congress also approved significant naval expansion through legislation later that year.

The Naval Act of 1916 authorized a major shipbuilding program.

These measures did not mean the United States had decided to enter the European war.

They reflected growing concern that the country needed stronger defenses in an uncertain international environment.

Preparedness supporters regarded the legislation as an important step.

Critics continued questioning whether military expansion was necessary or desirable.

The American constitutional system was operating through debate and legislation.

Congress controlled appropriations and established military structures.

The president directed foreign policy and commanded the armed forces.

Neither branch could entirely determine the country's military future alone.

The nation was preparing for possibilities it still hoped to avoid.

THE ELECTION OF 1916

Wilson Seeks a Second Term

The presidential election of 1916 took place against the background of the European war.

Woodrow Wilson sought reelection as the Democratic nominee.

The Republican Party nominated Charles Evans Hughes, a former governor of New York and associate justice of the United States Supreme Court.

The campaign addressed domestic economic policy, government reform, military preparedness, and foreign affairs.

Wilson's supporters emphasized that the United States had remained outside the European war during his presidency.

The phrase “He Kept Us Out of War” became associated with his reelection campaign.

Hughes criticized aspects of Wilson's administration and advocated a different approach to national leadership and preparedness.

But neither major-party candidate campaigned on a simple promise to enter the war.

The American public remained deeply concerned about the possibility of intervention.

The election reflected uncertainty about the country's international responsibilities.

A CLOSE PRESIDENTIAL CONTEST

November 1916

The election was closely contested.

Several states produced narrow results.

California became particularly important to the final outcome.

Wilson ultimately won reelection with 277 electoral votes.

Hughes received 254.

Wilson also won a narrow majority of the national popular vote.

The result gave Wilson a second term.

But it did not resolve the question of America's future relationship with the war.

The president had preserved neutrality through the election.

Yet events in Europe were moving beyond his control.

Within months, Germany would make a decision that dramatically changed the situation.

GERMANY FACES A STRATEGIC DILEMMA

A War of Exhaustion

By late 1916, Germany's leaders faced difficult military and economic conditions.

The war had continued far longer than anticipated.

German armies remained engaged on multiple fronts.

The British blockade restricted imports and contributed to severe shortages.

The civilian population experienced growing hardship.

Food supplies became an increasing concern.

The winter of 1916–1917 became especially difficult for many Germans.

Poor harvests, transportation problems, and wartime restrictions contributed to shortages.

German military leaders believed that Britain depended heavily on overseas supplies.

They argued that a renewed campaign of unrestricted submarine warfare might force Britain out of the conflict.

But the strategy carried a serious risk.

It could bring the United States into the war.

German leaders understood that American industry, finance, and manpower could strengthen the Allied war effort.

Nevertheless, some concluded that submarine warfare offered the best opportunity to achieve victory before American forces could become decisive.

It was a calculated gamble.

And it would have enormous consequences.

JANUARY 1917 — THE DECISION THAT CHANGED EVERYTHING

Germany Resumes Unrestricted Submarine Warfare

On January 31, 1917, Germany announced that unrestricted submarine warfare would resume on February 1.

German submarines would attack shipping in designated war zones around Britain and other areas without following the restrictions previously promised.

The decision directly challenged American demands concerning neutral maritime rights.

Wilson's administration responded by breaking diplomatic relations with Germany on February 3.

But Wilson did not immediately ask Congress to declare war.

He still hoped that Germany might avoid actions making American intervention unavoidable.

The president faced a difficult situation.

The United States had repeatedly warned Germany about attacks on shipping.

Germany had now announced a policy that placed American vessels and citizens at serious risk.

The conflict between neutrality and national interests was becoming increasingly difficult to reconcile.

THE ZIMMERMANN TELEGRAM

A Secret Proposal to Mexico

While Germany was preparing to resume unrestricted submarine warfare, its foreign secretary, Arthur Zimmermann, sent a coded diplomatic message in January 1917.

The message was intended for the German minister in Mexico.

It proposed that if the United States entered the war against Germany, Mexico should consider joining Germany in an alliance.

The telegram suggested that Germany would support Mexico in recovering territory lost to the United States, including Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.

It also encouraged efforts to involve Japan, although Japan was already fighting on the Allied side.

The proposal was highly significant.

Germany was contemplating ways to distract or weaken the United States if American intervention occurred.

But the message did not remain secret.

British intelligence intercepted and decoded it.

The British government shared the information with American officials.

On March 1, 1917, the telegram became public.

Its contents shocked many Americans.

WHY THE TELEGRAM MATTERED

A Threat Closer to Home

For Americans who had viewed the European war as a distant conflict, the Zimmermann Telegram introduced a different concern.

It suggested that Germany was willing to encourage a military confrontation involving Mexico and the United States.

The proposal was not an agreement.

Mexico did not enter an alliance with Germany.

And the plan faced enormous practical difficulties.

Nevertheless, its significance was political and diplomatic.

The message showed that German officials were considering actions directed against American security.

The revelation intensified public distrust of Germany.

It also weakened arguments that the United States could remain unaffected by the war.

The telegram alone did not cause American entry into World War I.

But combined with unrestricted submarine warfare, it contributed to a growing sense that American neutrality was under direct challenge.

AMERICAN SHIPS COME UNDER ATTACK

The Atlantic Becomes More Dangerous

During February and March 1917, German submarines continued attacking shipping.

Several American merchant vessels were sunk.

The losses raised urgent questions about how the United States should respond.

American citizens had the right to travel and conduct lawful commerce, but those activities increasingly carried the danger of submarine attack.

Wilson initially pursued measures short of war.

The administration considered arming American merchant vessels to protect them.

Political and constitutional disagreements complicated the issue.

Congress debated the proposed armed-ship legislation.

A Senate filibuster prevented final passage before the congressional session ended.

Wilson subsequently directed the arming of merchant vessels under authority claimed by the executive branch.

The administration was attempting to defend American shipping without formally entering the war.

But German attacks continued.

The practical distinction between armed neutrality and participation in the conflict was becoming increasingly difficult to maintain.

THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION CHANGES THE DIPLOMATIC LANDSCAPE

March 1917

Another major development occurred in Russia.

Years of war had placed extraordinary pressure on the Russian Empire.

Military losses, food shortages, economic disruption, and dissatisfaction with the government contributed to unrest.

In March 1917, according to the Western calendar, demonstrations and military mutinies helped bring down the monarchy.

Tsar Nicholas II abdicated.

A provisional government assumed authority.

Russia remained in the war for the time being.

The revolution changed the political character of one of the major Allied powers.

For Wilson, the removal of the Russian monarchy made it easier to present the conflict as one involving representative government and international political principles.

But Russia's future remained deeply uncertain.

Further revolutionary upheaval would follow later in 1917.

The collapse of the monarchy demonstrated how profoundly the war was destabilizing established governments.

Europe was not simply fighting over territory.

Its political order was changing.

THE FINAL WEEKS OF AMERICAN NEUTRALITY

Wilson Weighs the Decision

By late March 1917, Wilson faced mounting pressure.

Germany had resumed unrestricted submarine warfare.

American merchant vessels had been sunk.

The Zimmermann Telegram had become public.

The European conflict continued without a clear resolution.

And American diplomatic efforts had failed to secure lasting protection for neutral shipping.

Wilson had spent more than two years attempting to keep the country out of war.

He understood that intervention would require a massive national commitment.

American soldiers would have to be recruited, trained, equipped, and transported overseas.

The government would need to coordinate industry and transportation.

Congress would have to authorize spending and establish the legal framework for mobilization.

Families across the country would face the possibility of military service and loss.

Entering the war would not be a limited diplomatic gesture.

It would fundamentally change the direction of the United States.

APRIL 2, 1917 — WILSON ADDRESSES CONGRESS

A Request for War

On April 2, 1917, President Wilson appeared before a joint session of Congress.

He asked lawmakers to recognize that Germany's submarine campaign constituted war against the United States.

Wilson argued that attacks on shipping threatened the rights of neutral nations and the safety of their citizens.

He also placed the proposed intervention within a broader vision of international political order.

In one of the most remembered passages of his address, Wilson declared:

“The world must be made safe for democracy.”

The statement expressed his belief that American participation could contribute to a more secure international system.

But Wilson's argument was not accepted without opposition.

Some members of Congress questioned whether war was necessary.

Others worried about the costs, the loss of life, and the implications for American independence.

The decision belonged to Congress.

Under the Constitution, the president could request a declaration of war.

But Congress possessed the authority to declare it.

The country was approaching a moment of enormous constitutional and historical significance.

CONGRESS DEBATES WAR

A Decision With Lasting Consequences

The House and Senate considered Wilson's request.

Supporters argued that Germany's actions had violated American rights and made military intervention necessary.

They emphasized submarine attacks, the failure of diplomacy, and the need to defend the country's security.

Opponents raised different concerns.

Some believed the United States should continue pursuing peace.

Others questioned whether American commercial interests had drawn the country too closely toward the Allies.

Some feared that war would expand federal power and threaten civil liberties.

Representative Jeannette Rankin of Montana, the first woman elected to Congress, was among those who opposed the declaration.

Senator George Norris of Nebraska also spoke against entry into the conflict.

Their opposition reflected a broader tradition of skepticism toward foreign wars and concern about the consequences of military intervention.

The debate was serious.

The United States was not merely choosing sides in a European conflict.

It was deciding whether to commit American lives and resources to a major international war.

APRIL 6, 1917 — AMERICA ENTERS WORLD WAR I

Congress Declares War on Germany

On April 4, 1917, the Senate approved the war resolution.

The House followed in the early hours of April 6.

Wilson signed the joint resolution that day.

The United States was now at war with Germany.

The declaration marked a turning point in American history.

For more than two years, the country had attempted to remain neutral.

Its government had protested violations of maritime rights.

Its citizens had debated preparedness and intervention.

Its businesses had continued participating in international commerce.

But Germany's unrestricted submarine campaign, attacks on shipping, and the wider diplomatic crisis had led the president and Congress to conclude that war was necessary.

The United States entered as an Associated Power cooperating with the Allies.

It did not become a formal member of all the existing Allied alliance agreements.

The distinction reflected the country's desire to preserve a degree of independent decision-making.

But the practical consequences were enormous.

American military forces would soon cross the Atlantic.

American factories would become essential to the war effort.

American families would experience the demands of national mobilization.

And the United States would assume a new role in the conflict that was reshaping the world.

THE COUNTRY REACTS

Support, Concern, and Uncertainty

The declaration of war produced different reactions across the United States.

Some Americans supported intervention and believed the country had to defend its rights.

Others welcomed the possibility that American participation might help bring the European conflict to an end.

Patriotic demonstrations took place.

Recruitment efforts expanded.

Communities began organizing support for the military.

But not everyone welcomed the decision.

Peace advocates continued questioning the war.

Some religious groups opposed military participation.

Families worried about sons, husbands, and brothers who might be called into service.

German Americans and other immigrant communities faced increasing suspicion.

Political dissent became more controversial.

The government would soon introduce measures intended to support mobilization and national security.

Some of those measures would generate serious constitutional disputes.

The declaration of war had answered one question.

But it had created many others.

How would the United States raise a large army?

How would the government finance the conflict?

What responsibilities would businesses and workers assume?

How would wartime demands affect civil liberties?

And how would Americans reconcile the nation's constitutional principles with the extraordinary powers exercised during war?

Those questions would shape the next phase of the story.

WHAT BROUGHT AMERICA INTO WORLD WAR I?

The American decision to enter the war resulted from several developments rather than a single event.

First, Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare directly challenged American maritime rights.

The policy endangered neutral shipping and American lives.

Second, repeated diplomatic efforts failed to produce a lasting settlement.

The Sussex pledge had temporarily reduced tensions, but Germany's 1917 decision reversed important restrictions.

Third, the Zimmermann Telegram intensified concerns about American security.

The proposed alliance with Mexico demonstrated Germany's willingness to consider measures directed against the United States.

Fourth, economic and international relationships had made the war increasingly relevant to American interests.

Trade, finance, and shipping connected the United States to the conflict.

Fifth, Wilson presented intervention as part of a broader effort to protect international rights and establish a more secure peace.

His administration argued that the war involved principles extending beyond immediate commercial disputes.

Finally, Congress exercised its constitutional authority to decide whether the United States would enter the conflict.

The declaration followed debate and recorded votes by elected representatives.

These developments together explain the transition from neutrality to war.

THE GREAT EXPERIMENT: THE CONSTITUTION AND THE DECISION FOR WAR

When the founders established the American constitutional system, they divided responsibility for military affairs.

The president would serve as commander in chief.

Congress would possess the authority to declare war, raise and support armies, and provide for a navy.

The arrangement reflected concerns about concentrating military authority in a single office.

The founders understood that war could place extraordinary demands on a republic.

It could require taxation and borrowing.

It could expand government responsibilities.

It could affect commerce and individual liberty.

And it could impose tremendous costs on the population.

The events of 1916 and 1917 brought those constitutional arrangements into focus.

Wilson directed American diplomacy.

He responded to German submarine warfare.

He asked Congress to authorize war.

Congress debated the request and approved the declaration.

The decision was made through the institutions established by the Constitution.

But the constitutional process did not eliminate disagreement.

Some lawmakers supported intervention.

Others opposed it.

Americans across the country held differing views about the nation's responsibilities.

Those disagreements were part of representative government.

The decision to enter World War I demonstrated both the authority of the national government and the importance of public accountability.

The United States had spent more than two years trying to remain outside the conflict. Now the American people, through their constitutional institutions, had committed the nation to war.

The consequences would reach into factories, farms, neighborhoods, schools, and households across the country.

America had made its decision.

The next challenge was preparing to fight.

THE STORY CONTINUES

PART III OF V — A NATION GOES TO WAR

American Soldiers, the Home Front, and the Struggle for Victory

1917–1918

The next chapter follows the United States as it transforms from a neutral industrial nation into a major participant in the First World War.

Congress will establish a national draft.

American soldiers will begin arriving in France.

Factories will increase production.

Women and Black Americans will play important roles in the war effort while continuing to confront unequal opportunities.

The federal government will assume new responsibilities.

Debates over freedom of expression and national security will intensify.

And American troops will enter some of the most difficult battles of the conflict.

The United States has declared war. Now an entire nation must prepare for what comes next.

Our Money Matters. Our Choices Matter. Our Voice Matters.

The People. The Voice. The Future.

Politics 1776